because, as and since; so and therefore; in order to, to + infinitive and so (that); so and such; enough and too
Context listening
You are going to hear two friends, Josie and Adam, talking at their sports club. Before you listen, look at the picture.
Can you guess which sports they take part in?
Listen and check if you were right.
Listen again and fill in the gaps. Stop the recording when you need to.
Josie thinks Tom Castle was chosen because he’s the coach’s nephew.
Adam believes that Tom is certainly ________ to be captain.
Adam suggests Josie ought to be in the team herself ________ she seems to know so much about the subject.
Josie objects that she isn’t ________ to play volleyball.
Adam points out that Melanie is ________ that she’s one of the best players.
Josie says that going to judo once a week gives her ________ .
She thinks that volleyball would take ________ .
She adds that they have ________ after school.
Adam says that he has been training every day ________ be really fit.
The coach told Adam that he plays ________ .
Some of the older players may drop out ________ they’ve got to do.
Look at your answers to questions 2, 4, 6 and 10. What do you notice about the position of the word enough?
Log into Learnclick to do the exercise and check your answers.
GRAMMAR
Expressing reason and result
because, as and since
Because, as and since introduce the reason for an action or situation. They can go at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence:
They had to choose him as/because/since he’s the coach’s nephew.
As/Because/Since he’s the coach’s nephew, they had to choose him.
Notice that if they go at the beginning, there is usually a comma at the end of the clause:
As/Because/Since I hadn’t done my homework, I didn’t understand the lesson.
Because (but not as or since) can be used to begin the answer to a question with Why:
Question: Why didn’t you understand the lesson?
Answer: Because I hadn’t done my homework. (not As/Since I hadn’t …)
So and therefore
So and therefore introduce the result of an action or situation.
So usually goes in the middle of a sentence:
They may need a new goalkeeper so I want to be ready.
Therefore goes at the beginning of a new sentence:
They may need a new goalkeeper. Therefore I want to be ready.
We could also say:
I want to be ready because they may need a new goalkeeper.
Compare these sentences, which have the same meaning:
I hadn’t done my homework so I didn’t understand the lesson.
I hadn’t done my homework. Therefore I didn’t understand the lesson.
As/Since/Because I hadn’t done my homework, I didn’t understand the lesson.
So is more common in speaking. Therefore is more common in writing.
Expressing purpose
(in order) to + infinitive and so (that) + verb
In order to and so
So always goes in the middle of a sentence, and is followed by a clause, often with will, would, can or could:
I’ve been training every day so (that) I’ll be really fit.
I joined the tennis club so (that) I could play whenever I wanted.
I phoned to say the train was late so (that) my parents wouldn’t worry.
(In order) to goes in the middle, or occasionally at the beginning, of a sentence and is followed by the infinitive:
I’ve been training every day (in order) to be really fit.
(In order) to be really fit, I’ve been training every day.
In order to and so that are more formal than to and so on their own. To and so are more usual in spoken English.
Remember, in sentences like these we do not use for to express purpose:
(not I have been training every day for to be really fit.)
Sentences with so can sometimes have two meanings, depending on their context, for example:
I’ve been training every day so I’ll be ready for the next match.
This could express purpose:
I’ve been training every day in order to be ready for the next match.
I’ve been training every day. Therefore I’ll be ready for the next match.
Explaining cause and effect
so and such
So and such mean ‘as much as this’.
We can use them before a that clause to talk about cause and effect:
He walked so slowly that we arrived late. = we arrived late because he walked very slowly)
He was such a slow walker that we arrived late.
We often omit that, especially in speech:
It was such an untidy office we couldn’t find our books.
= It was such an untidy office that we couldn’t find our books.
We can use so and such for emphasis, often after because:
Her teachers sent her home because she had behaved so badly.
I love those shoes. They’re so cool!
Her teachers sent her home because she was such a naughty child.
Did you hear what he said? He’s such an idiot!
So is followed by:
an adjective or an adverb:
Her father is so rich (that) she’s never travelled by bus.
He spoke to her so rudely (that) she walked out of the room.
the words many, much and few, with or without a noun:
He’s invited so many people to the party (that) there’s nowhere to sit down.
I’ve got so few books (that) I can keep them on one shelf.
You complain so much (that) everyone gets bored.
Such is followed by:
a/an (if necessary) + adjective + noun:
Her father is such a rich man (that) she goes everywhere by taxi.
The café always charges such high prices (that) students can’t afford to eat there.
We weren’t used to such luxurious accommodation.
a/an (if necessary) + noun only:
They were treated with such kindness (that) they were reluctant to leave.
The concert was such a success (that) they decided to give another.
the expression a lot (of), with or without a noun:
He’s invited such a lot of people to the party (that) there’s nowhere to sit down.
spent such a lot last night (that) I can’t afford to go out at the weekend.
Very and so/such:
Very and so/such can be used with a similar meaning for emphasis:
She is very annoying.
She is so annoying.
She is such an annoying person.
But very is not followed by a that clause:
The sun was so hot (that) we had to sit in the shade all day. (not The sun was very hot (that) we had to sit …)
enough and too :
Enough means ‘sufficient, the right quantity’.
Too means ‘more than enough’.
I don’t want to swim in the sea today – it’s toocold / it isn’t warmenough.
Phrases with too and enough are often followed by:
to + infinitive:
This bag is too heavy to carry.
I’m not strong enough to carry this bag.
He wasn’t running quickly enough to catch us.
for something/someone:
This bikini is too small for me.
Have you got enough money for the car park?
There isn’t enough cake for everybody to have a piece.
It was raining too heavily for the match to continue.
Enough goes:
before a noun:
I’ve got enough sandwiches for lunch. (= as many sandwiches as I need)
We haven’t got enough time to go to the café before the film.
after an adverb:
Are we speaking loudly enough to be heard? (= Can everyone hear us?)
after an adjective:
This room is warm enough for me. (= the right temperature)
Too goes:
before many/much + a noun:
There are too many books for me to carry. (= I can’t carry all of them)
I’ve got too much work. (= I can’t do it all)
before an adverb:
Are we speaking too loudly? (= Are we disturbing the other students?)
before an adjective:
This room is too warm for me. (= the temperature is uncomfortably high)
Note:
Very does not mean the same as too:
This jacket is very expensive, but I can afford it.
This jacket is too expensive, so I can’t afford it.
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